Abby Hazen

Throughout the nineteenth century the image of a man changed from a national opinion, which was relaxed to one that set strict boundaries on the definition of masculinity. With the onset of the Civil War the nation viewed men’s duty to be to uphold the honor of their country through the brutality of war, as opposed to the civilized gentlemen the previous generations revered. Only men attended Dickinson College in 1876, therefore the school’s student body of the time represents an example of societies influence on the student’s opinions of masculinity. The following essay concentrates on the culture of masculinity in 1876 as a development of the nineteenth century due to the Civil War and the growth of commercial capitalism, relating how Dickinson Students of the time embodied the image of masculinity at the centennial of the nation. As early as the 1840’s values of work ethic, self-sacrifice and primordial instinct developed in the standard of a man. These ideals were linked with the growth of commercial capitalism, encouraging men to participate in the system of boundless opportunities. Society began to expect each man to posses’ three distinct aspects of their character. The first aspect of the ideal man’s character in the nineteenth century was being self -motivated and naturally active in the growth of society. Work ethic and self-advancement were both admirable and desirable characteristics. In the 1860’s John Burroughs wrote, “We respect him less who is set up in business, with a fortune at his disposal, than he who, from humble beginnings, achieves his own success.” The second aspect of masculinity emphasized by society was moral value and communal order. Men were expected to be involved in the local church, aiding in the community through philanthropic endeavors and participation in family life. The third aspect of manliness represented the civilized man who was primitive in respect to his primordial instinct for survival. These ideals honored vigor and strength in both body and personality. In a letter to a friend one lawyer wrote, “ Here is a vast field for workers… if I am only equal to the contest I shall win, if weak then some other and stronger one will carry off the spoils. I shall work and work to win.” Masculinity as projected by society reflected each of these aspects of character. American culture’s emphasis on the primitive qualities of men began with the onset of the Civil War and continued to progress throughout the nineteenth century. One Civil War soldier, John William DeForest, noted the soldier’s spent their time behaving as “fierce warriors” and his thoughts lingered on “Cooper’s most celebrated Indians.” Thoughts of American men as primitive beings progressed to feelings of manhood in the 1870’s being directly related to military service. The courage and self-sacrifice of war soldiers contrasted with the wealthier classes after the war. Americans believed the soldierly values must be revived in American culture. These values which were encourage and taught with immense force were, “courage, strength, endurance, duty, principled sacrifice.” In December of 1869 an article, “Fredrick the Great” appeared in Harper’s Magazine. While the article focused on Fredrick William, a drawing entitled, “Making A Soldier of Him” supplemented the article. The picture showed Fredrick William having his hair cut in preparation for the Prussian military. Depictions of Fredrick William, who was highly revered in the article, behaving in a particular manner, dedicated to American men how they were expected to conduct themselves. By the late 1870’s Americans saw the benefits of the Civil War in regards to way war shaped honorable characteristics in American men. The virtues associated with military service were highly revered by society and seen as the ideal qualities in a man. Particularly with the onset of the Civil War, Dickinson students were urged to embody the traits of a soldier. In 1843 George Bethune, a local minister and graduate, gave a speech to the student body entitled, “The Duties of Educated Men”. Bethune’s speech encouraged students to join the American military. He told students “Do your duty, at all times, in all places, and to all men.” Continuing with the emerging values of masculinity he spoke, “He lives for his country, which is even more happy and honorable then to die for it.” Articles written by students in the school newspaper, The Dickinsonian, later in the century, expressed similar opinions of martial value. On November 5, 1872 an article entitled “Modern Chivalry” emphasized the chivalrous characteristics, which students should make effort to undertake. The student wrote, “There is today, an urgent need for knighthood that shall uphold the broad principal of love, and decry and oppose those content with existing institutions, careless whether they be right or wrong, as long as they themselves shall be benefited. Such a knighthood is only the embodiment of the principle that belongs to every race and age that is inherent in the moral nature of man.” A Students expression of the idea regarding soldierly values in The Dickinsonian reflects societies power in influencing the ideals of masculinity. The article reflects the students of Dickinson College embracing the American ideals of courage and self-sacrifice.

The Dickinson College community abided to the rigid and demanding constraints placed on men in the late nineteenth century. Student orations and articles reflected the ideals students held for themselves as future leaders of the nation. In the Belles Lettres Prize Contest for junior orations in June of 1876 students expressed their opinions of male characteristics, which were admirable, proper and desired. Walter A. Powell wrote the oration “Ambition” where he spoke of the ability students possessed: “in the bosom of man there slumbers a power which aroused, can revolutionize the world.”  Ambitions such as these reflected the nation’s emphasis on self-motivation and taking an active role in the growth of society. Students also echoed Americas stress on moral value and communal order. An article appeared in The Dickinsonian, in December of 1872 titled “Influence of Character”. The article read, “the man who enjoys the repute for being honest, upright pure; who is free from tricks, and policies and plots; who walks the way of life true conscience and God makes himself a king.”  The article likely reflects on American’s growing careers in commercial capitalism and the greed and dishonesty used to get ahead. While Dickinson students sought success in outside world, The Dickinsonian articles express students desire for success without selfishness and a career where they act as moral players. Dickinson student’s adhered to the major traits laid upon them by society, however the students represented the emphasis placed on morality and self-motivation as opposed to the attributes of primitive survival and vigor of personality when immoral means were the method. 

Fraternal orders gained popularity throughout the nineteenth century and contributed to the social order which developed through the eighteen hundreds. Societies of men that promoted ritual and friendship provided a solace from the rigidity of the growing capitalist society. By 1897 in a population of nineteen million American adult males, five and a half million belonged to a fraternal order. In the mid-eighteen hundreds, drinking societies such as the Freemasons banned alcohol and established a level of moral character for upcoming members. One example of the change is the fraternal order, the Red Men that was established in 1834. Originally the group of men met weekly, drinking and sharing stories. As the century progressed the order did away with drinking and in 1868 the order instilled a series of rituals for new members. The purpose of the ritual was to transform the group into a family of men with the highest values. The change in the former drinking societies reflected the opinion of society as to the proper way men should behave, holding high moral values and emphasis on family type relationships. Fraternities represented a forum for aiding in the growth of men during their college years. Phi Kappa Sigma founded the Epsilon chapter at Dickinson in 1854 and remained on campus for different periods throughout the nineteenth century. The Epsilon chapter’s necessary attributes for becoming a member were clearly stated in the constitution as “the promotion of good fellowship and the cultivation of the social virtues among our members; the protection of just rights and the advancement of the best interests, present and future, individual and collective, of all those who shall be associated together as members of this Fraternity; the encouragement of good scholarship and the breadth of training for our members; and cooperation in the educational and cultural programs of institutions of higher education.” Ideals held by fraternities such as Phi Kappa Sigma on the Dickinson College campus reflected the ideals of masculinity held by American society in 1876. Characteristics of good fellowship, cultivation of social values, elevation of public character and advancement of best interest all fell into the three major ideals created by society as model attributes of men. These attributes would have not been as important to a fraternity on the Dickinson College campus had society not instilled their significance in American culture. Athletics were a form of moral and character development, as health and fitness were necessary for character growth. Sports were seen as a means of development that was necessary to the growth of the man and in turn the growth of the nation. Society of the nineteenth century conceived “full grown, well developed men, able and ready to do good work of all kinds”, those men who had tested themselves athletically were prepared and worthy of becoming the nation’s leaders. The nation’s opinion reflected it’s self in various forms, particularly in popular magazines such as Harper’s Weekly. Articles and drawings appeared in each issue of Harper’s Weekly depicting and discussing athletics as a means for the development of character and manhood. In 1869 Harpers Weekly published several articles on university rowing. The articles discussed college athletics as a means of the creation of the ideal man. A picture of one young man appeared, depicting his muscular body and determination. The article made no reference to athletics as a form of character development, but the persistent publication of articles on college rowing indicated to the public the importance of athletics as a part of a college education and character growth for the future leaders of the country. Though organized athletics did not begin at Dickinson College until 1890 and early 1900 there was an athletic presence on campus. In the fall of 1874 the college hosted a regatta for students. The Dickinsonian reflected on the regatta’s affects and place on the college campus. While some members of campus felt “that rowing, like riding, walking gymnastic exercise, &c., may be a most valuable part of physical training we acknowledge… that it accomplishes everything, or even constitutes the best means of physical culture.” Others on campus thought the regatta to have not accomplished the goal and if the purpose was accomplished the school was a place for academics and growth of the mind not the body. A similar opinion was expressed in the 1876 junior class orations. James C. Nicholson’s oration entitled “Thoughts”. Nicholson spoke to his classmates saying, “The body devoid of mind, is but he casket without the jewel. The dignity and supremacy of man is the divine essence of mind.” Dickinson students acknowledged the importance of athletics, however thought the college to be an institution to be for the growth of the mind. One result of the Civil War and the development of commercial capitalism was a change in American culture and ideals. In effect Americans ideals of manhood became stricter and success in American society depended on molding to these newfound virtues. As societies pressure mounted throughout the eighteen hundreds more men conformed to the set ideals. Men and society also knew no other way to perceive masculinity as the century progressed. Students who were successful at Dickinson College by the standards of 1876 America, those who wrote for the college paper, won orations contest, participated in athletics and became members of fraternities, molded to the principals of nineteenth century America.