Modern Eugenics

Introduction

There are three major types of eugenics which have existed throughout history: natural, conventional, and modern. The first and original type of eugenics is known as evolution or natural selection. The inferior members of a species do not procreate due to the fact of survival of the fittest, only the strong survive. It has been proven that the substandard species die out as a result of overpopulation of stronger species and extinction of their own kind. Also, because most animals naturally prefer to mate with the most successful members of their respective species, the inferior of a given species are not nearly as likely to procreate even if they survive. Therefore, their genetic material and inferior characteristics are effectively removed from the gene pool of that species.

The second major type of eugenics is defined as conventional eugenics. The most prominent eugenic interest is what is referred to as “selective breeding.” This can be defined as “in domesticated animals is the process of a breeder developing a cultivated breed over time, and selecting qualities within individuals of the breed that will be best to pass on to the next generation.” This process is extremely controversial in the public eye and has been constantly disputed over since the onset of its presence. Generally, breeders examine which stock is of the finest quality and emphasis those traits which make the animal superior. The overall goal is to create the strongest, most flawless collection. So, instead of having to wait years for the environment to remove the inferior organisms from the gene pool, the breeder is able to act as soon as the subject has matured.

Currently, a third type of eugenics is rising, which is known as modern eugenics or genetic engineering. This type of science removes evolution from the reproductive process. It may be the most familiar and most accessible type society is exposed to. It transforms the development of the human species into a science involving test tubes and “fake genes.” There is nothing natural or personal about it.

Francis Fukuyama: Our Posthuman Future

Francis Fukuyama is a highly respected philosopher, political economist and author. We believe that to properly understand the field of Modern Eugenics, it is important to take into consideration the works of Fukuyama, specifically his book titled, "Our Posthuman Future" discusses how recent inroads in bio-medical research has allowed scientists to completely alter the human race using gene selection and genetic engineering. In the book, Fukuyama talks about the outcome of a world filled with manipulated DNA and possibly dangerous descendants. Using these themes and ideas as a centerpiece, we can continue our look into Modern Eugenics and paint a picture of what such a world would be like to live in.

Designer Babies

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Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering is the specific term given to the process in which the forced manipulation of DNA is used to control the traits and characteristics of the unborn individual. While this process may prove beneficial to the fight against disease and virus, human genetic engineering mainly remains theoretical and is considered taboo in the science community. The only clinical exam of human gene therapy took place in 1990, but is still in an experimental stage. Gene modification has taken place only in mice and other small animals, experiments of these nature usually involve the removal of genetic material from one organism only to transfer it to another species.

There are two major techniques that are used in the field of genetic engineering: Somatic and Germline manipulation. Somatic gene manipulation is classified as "gene therapy" in the science world, it involves taking the somatic cell which is all the cells that do not pass DNA on to future generations and introducing to them different genes. They take these "modified" genes and inject them into the blood streams of different patients. For example, a hemophiliac patient would have these somatic cells introduced to there blood streams in order to attempt to cure their disorder by giving them the necessary traits. While these types of trials have been conducted multiple times, the patients have not cured or benefitted from such treatment. The second type of genetic engineering, germline manipulation involves specifically sperm cells and eggs. When you manipulate these germ cells, you are directly affecting the gene inheritance of future generations. Scientists pursue germline manipulation specifically due to the fact that most people deem designing future generations and having a direct influence in their offspring particularly appealing.

There are many other reasons as to why scientists would pursue such a contrived and deliberate practice, some hope to cure cystic fibrosis through somatic cell therapy. Other major companies see genetic engineering as a major money-maker and potential big industry. "Organ Repair" is a new field that involves cloning of specific organs and possibly transplant them into patients in need of them. This would completely revolutionize the medical field, the whole concept of a "donor list" and the fact that many, many patients do not get the organs they need would be a problem of the past.

Super Human Society

In the past three decades, scientists have discovered how to mix and match characteristics among unrelated creatures by moving genes from one individual to another, which can also be referred to as "genetic engineering." Now genetic engineers have developed several techniques which can be applied in the modern world of eugenics.

Cloning This phenomenon is extremely controversial, as is most of eugenic use today. It works by using the DNA of an existing individual in order to create a new individual. As far as data shows, only animals have yet to be cloned. Human cloning has not been achieved successfully up to this point, however researchers continue to attempt this task. There are two main types of cloning:

Embryo Cloning This idea could be used to create new human parts. For example, some scientists are working on methods to produce a new embryo from an existing person's cells and then use the cells from that embryo to produce replacements for failing body parts in the original person. An embryo develops about a week after conception, and in its early stages consists of a few identical cells, therefore

Reproductive cloning This type of cloning could produce completely cloned individuals. Human cloning would produce a new person who is a near identical genetic copy of another person. He or she would, however, be different from the original person because he or she would develop in a different environment and have different experiences. The physical makeup of the two, however, would be exact. It is also the technique used by Advanced Cell Technology (ACT), the first company to successfully clone early human embryos that stopped at the six cell stage. The process goes as follows: an egg cell is taken from a donor which has had its cytoplasm removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original egg cell, transferring its cell nucleus to the enucleated, or to remove the nucleus of, donor egg. This process is continuously being experimented with and utilized in hopes of successfully cloning human beings.

Modifying Genes in Athletes

The term gene doping can be defined as the process in which athletes could genetically modify themselves with specific DNA that will help to enhance their performance. According to Peter Schjerling of the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre in Demark, noticing use of this will be almost impossible. Schjerling believes those wishing to utilize the idea will avoid detection by injecting copies of genes naturally present into their body, such as encoding growth factors or testosterone. Athletics have been extremely popularized within the last several decades, and the determination to be "superhumans" grow each year. With so much at stake in competitions, athletes generally have the upper hand on certain power enhancing tools over normal patients.

Blood Booster

One possibility of gene doping would be to inject the gene for erythropoietin,or EPO, a protein that increases red blood cell count in the body. Red blood cells carry oxygen, therefore allow the athlete to have more oxygen available in the body. In 1998, a whole cycling team was thrown out of the Tour de France for using EPO. But while it is possible to spot the synthetic protein currently used by its molecular differences, EPO from biologically created genes could be made to identically match natural EPO, hence making it nearly impractical to detect the fraud.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)

Sanjay Rajagopalan and colleagues at the University of Michigan have experimented on patients with peripheral atherosclerotic disease, when plaque builds up in the arteries that carry blood to your head, organs, and limbs. This painful disease results in the constriction of blood vessels to the limbs and can sometimes result in patients losing a limb. Injection of this gene into patients boosts VEGF levels which widens blood vessels. But athletes could use the therapy to increase the blood supply to their muscles, in order to enhance performance. This gene therapy technique employs the common cold virus to deliver the VEGF gene to cells, so even detecting the virus would not prove an athlete had been cheating.

Bibliography

Bruinius, Harry. 2006. Better for all the world: the secret history of forced sterilization and America's quest for racial purity. New York: Knopf.

Science Books (2003, October 19). Five studies on the widely varied uses -- and abuses -- of science :[FINAL Edition]. The Washington Post,p. T10. Retrieved November 22, 2008, from ProQuest Newsstand database. (Document ID: 425227791).

http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/GEessays/gedanger.htm#GEHB