International Relations Theory

Traditional Idealists – norms, ideals, and interests can be achieved naturally through cooperation Woodrow Wilson – staunch supporter of free trade, open agreements and treaties, self determination British 19th century liberals believed that the state protects interests, there is natural determination, and due to free trade war has become an outdated waste of resources. (Manchester school – war wastes times and money; free trade aids and profits all)

Realists – Bismark, Machiavelli, Kissinger – analyze politics in terms of power; conflict is the natural way of things Leviathan – Hobbes – subterfuge is the way to survive, there is no place for principles. All men are the same and predisposed to want the same things, and this leads to war and violence. Those who claim peace are simply afraid of death. State of Nature/State of War – all against all and there is competition because everyone wants to Absolute gains

The total benefits that accrue to a state as a consequence of its interactions with other states without regard to the benefits that accrue to others. Liberals argue that states are the most concerned with absolute gains and that they provide a basis for cooperation in world politics. Taken from: How the World Works by Russell Bova

Anarchy is the simple reality that within the international system composed of nation states, there exists no overarching authority. Each state maintains its own autonomy with respect to every other state; no international government exists. This renders the system chaotic and unpredictable, but not necessarily destined for conflict. See: John Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, Kenneth Waltz, The Anarchic Structure of World Politics

Appeasement

The act of making compromises or concessions in order to avoid a potentially costly war. The most common example would be the actions on the part of Great Britain toward Nazi Germany in the build up to World War II.

Autarky

Autarky is the ability to be self-sufficient. It is most commonly used when referring to economics, when a country can survive without external assistance. Autarky does not have to refer to economics though. A military autarky would be one that could defend itself without outside help.

Clash of Civilizations Samuel Huntington, presents us with a post-cold war paradigm: that increasingly, geopolitics delineate themselves along broad culture boundaries. All modern conflicts are the result of this "clash of civilizations." These conflicts are all the more irreconcilable as they are related to culture and identity. Huntington identifies seven distinct "civilizations": sinic, or Chinese civilization, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic, Orthodox, centered in Russia, Western and Latin America. He also concedes that there may be an African civilization, but, and I quote: "most major scholars of civilization except Braudel do not recognize a distinct African civilization." See: Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking World Order

Democratic Peace Theory

Based on the empirical observation that democracies have historically tended not to fight wars against one another, this theory suggests that the spread of democratic government can be the antidote to war in the international system. Proponents of this theory point to either democratic norms (such as a shared belief in human rights) or actual democratic political structures to explain the lesser incidence of war between democracies. This concept is highly debated. Realists suggest that this phenomenon is actually caused by the prevalence of alliance ties between democracies, which are a function of realist power concerns. John Mearshimer (a prominent realist) has suggested that democracies are few in number and thus statistically have less opportunities to go to war. For a good analysis of the validity of the democratic peace theory, see this article.

Dependency theory: Component of structuralism/neo Marxism. The idea that the periphery does not benefit from liberal international economic order, it is instead dependent on the core. The relationship between the core and the periphery relationship is exploitative, promoting development of the core but not the periphery. The core relies on periphery markets and so establishes structures that perpetuate core dominance. Local elites monopolize domestic power and cooperate with international capitalist elites to perpetuate capitalist system.

Détente

This word comes from the French, meaning a "relaxation of tensions." In political science, the term specifically refers to the relaxation of Cold War tensions that took place between the US and the Soviet Union during the 1970s. Taken from: How the World Works by Russell Bova

Export-led growth: becomes the ruling model for South by 1980s-1990s. Founded on the idea that export growth in conjunction with protectionism will lead to maximized production efficiency, increased earnings, and increase in foreign exchange for development. This strategy was aimed at expanding overseas markets to the North by improving competition abroad. This was done by diversifying domestic export industries and industrializing. The central idea was to develop the economy in such a way that it would strongly appeal to foreign, developed markets. South switched to this model of growth following the failures of the NIEO and ISI strategy, the success of Asian tigers, and Northern pressures to liberalize under the Washington Consensus.

Feminism-- this is the theory that international relations would be different if more women were in power positions, and that politics is traditionally viewed through a male perspective.

Glastnost and perestroika: are, respectively, the policies of “openness” and “restructuring,” which Mikhail Gorbachev pursued as a general secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR between 1985 and 1991, which had the aim of complementing one another towards renovating the Soviet political system and society.

Glastnost was analogous to the freedom of speech and publication. Its immediate effect was and an flux of reports about corruption and criminality as well as state crimes, while perestroika encouraged political democratization through an introduction of contested election and new political institutions, as well as economic liberalization through legalization of cooperative and other semi-private business enterprises.

The policies had a catastrophic effect on Gorbachev’s political career, because they undermined public confidence in his ability to govern successfully. See this article.

Groupthink

The tendency, most often found in small, cohesive groups operating under conditions of stress, to abandon critical thinking in favor of viewpoints that reflect group solidarity. The term was coined by William Whyte, who claimed it was a "rationalized conformity—an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well." The most prominent researcher of groupthink was Irving Janis. Some scholars would point to the Bush administration and certain of its poor decisions as an example of this occurence. See this article from the New York Times, or this book review which gives a concise and thorough overview of the topic.

Human Rights;

the definition of human or natural rights as the rights of each person simply as a human being specifies their character; they are rights. For the question of "what is it in human nature that gives rise to human rights?", there are two basic answers; that HR arise from human nees; and HR reflect the minimum requirements for human dignity or moral personality.

From: "Human Rights in World Politics" from International Politics by Art and Jervis.

IBRD: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, known as IBRD, is one of the five institutions that comprise the World Bank Group, including the 1) International Development Association, 2) International Finance Corporation, 3) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency and 4) International Center for Settlement of International Disputes

The Banks was established immediately after the WWII to foster economic growth in post-war Europe and Japan. Today, its main goal is to fight poverty and encourage sustainable development through extension of loans to creditworthy governments and public enterprises. The bank raises its funds by selling its bonds on the world’s financial markets.

Source: www.worldbank.org

Idealism;

it usually analyses politics in terms of 'norms' and 'ideals' as well as 'interests.' Idealism tends toward optimistic view of human nature and society, seeing cooperation as not only desirable but natural

Import substitution industrialization: designed to reduce imports via tariffs, quotas, multiple exchange rates, etc. The goal is to protect infant industries, allowing them to develop and grow, ultimately encouraging FDI. This strategy encourages diversification toward manufacturing and is biased toward exports. The strategy tends to start with production of consumer goods and evolve toward capital goods. Another facet of this strategy involves the purposeful overvaluation of currency so that foreigners can’t easily import your goods, making imports of selective components cheaper. This strategy fails to generate capital savings sufficient to finance the transition to capital goods production. So ISI does not necessarily lead to decline in imports, rather it changes the composition of imports. Ultimately, ISI produces balance of trade deficits and creates weak, non-internationally competitive industries while weakening traditional exports. By the 1970s, the developing world realized that ISI was no longer a viable economic strategy.

IMF The International Monetary Fund was founded in 1944 as a part of the Bretton Woods Accord, to calm and solidify the international political economy. The IMF was a permanent institution to monitor a fixed currency, the “Gold Standard” which levied all international currencies off of the US dollar, which in turn was calculated from a specific weight of gold. As an observing body, the IMF intervened whenever a country’s currency fluctuated from more than one percent difference from the US dollar. The function of the IMF had to shift with the end of the Gold Standard. The IMF still serves to prevent crisis with emergency financing, but also to provide advice and to serve as a forum. All members donate a monetary quota that is calculated based on their relative wealth. This amount determines both the weight of their vote and the amount that they can be loaned. Members can borrow up to twenty-five percent of their quota and this is part of the new function of the IMF: that it buys out countries when they are close to defaulting on national loans, and the country is required to pay back the loan in their own currency with interest. See: http://www.imf.org/external/index.htm

Just War – Aquinas & St Augustine – there is authority of a sovereign; a random citizen may not declare war. There must be just cause – a valid reason to avenge wrong and right injustice; and rightful intention to advance good and fight evil. Grotius expanded on this theory by saying that a just war can be ended as soon as possible, since the losses dues to war do not make it profitable. Sacrifice interests for peace; not war.

Mutual Assured Destruction

A condition of mutual deterrence in which, in the event of a nuclear war, each side has the capability to inflict an unacceptable damage on the other. Thus, neither side would presumably initiate the use of nuclear weapons. This situation necessitates both sides having sufficent weapons to retaliate (see second strike capability). From: How the World Works by Russell Bova

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (or OTAN in French) is the intergovernmental military alliance that was created in 1949 at the advent of the Cold War. It was the first contract of collective security that the US participated in. One of the immediate reactions was the creation of the Warsaw Pact between the Soviet bloc countries. The fundamental structure and function of the NATO alliance was the West against the Soviet Union, but has shifted since the fall of the Berlin Wall. NATO first saw action during the Korean War. France was resentful of the prominent roles of the US and Great Britain, and withdrew from the military component of the alliance in 1959. As the Cold War escalated, NATO played a consistent role, upholding the policies of détente, etc. At the end of the Cold War, NATO quickly became integrally involved in the crises in the Balkans. NATO had the flexibility to react with military might when the UN could not. There are currently 28 independent members from North America and Europe, who are committed to upholding the freedom and security of all the member states. See: http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/index.htm

Milennium Development Goals

In September 2000, world leaders came together at United Nations Headquarters in New York to adopt the United Nations Milennium Declaration, committing their nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets - with a deadline of 2015 - that have become known as the Millennium Development Goals.

See: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkgd.shtml

Non-tariff barriers (NTBs): non-tariff forms of restricting trade. These NTBs discriminate against imports and represent an exception to the free trade concept instituted under the GATT. Forms of NTBs include quotas, anti-dumping legislation, voluntary export restraints, and orderly market agreements, which are effectively multi-country VERs.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): cartel in which many members are among the largest global exporters of oil. The purpose of OPEC is to regulate the supply of petroleum and thereby stabilize (often by raising) its price. OPEC was ascendant between 1973 and 1980 because of increased competition within the petroleum industry, increased producer-state bargaining, and increased oil dependency of the developed world. Saudi Arabia served as the lynchpin within OPEC, serving as a swing producer.

Peak Oil: where production is dwindling to levels inadequate to meet demand, which produces price spikes. Production can dwindle for a number of reasons included geology, environmental concerns regarding extraction, and the age of tough oil (oil is less accessible due to geopolitics).

Positive-sum: scenario in which all parties can gain or profit. In the liberal model of comparative advantage, through trade, all parties can benefit. In this scenario, one’s gain is not another’s loss. This scenario considers absolute gains, whereby you are better off than you were before, as opposed to relative gains.

Realpolitik: refers to a type of foreign policy, according to which concern for the security of the state (raison d’etat) is primary to any other concern, including ideology or moral dilemmas. Realpolitik also calls for pragmatism in calculating power and national interests by building military capabilities, creating alliances, or making concessions, which also reduce the chance of conflict.

See definition in this article

Realism;

it analyses politics in terms of 'interests' as power. Realism tends toward a passimistic view of human nature and society, seeing conflict as inherent and inevitable.

Relative gains

The benefits that accrue to a state from its international interactions assessed in comparision to the benefits that accrue to other states. Realists argue that states are most concerned with relative gains and that this concern is a source of tension and conflict in world politics. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova

Second strike capability

The ability of a country with nuclear weapons to ride out an initial nuclear attack with enough retalitory capability left intact to do unacceptable damage to one's adversary. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova

Waltz's "Three Images" of International Relation

In 1959, Waltz's book "Man, the State, and War" attempted to formulate a structural realist theory which classified theories of international relations into three categories, or levels of analysis.

1st Image: Individual, Human Nature.

2nd Image: State, Regime, Type.

3rd Image: System level (as a whole).

Uses of Force: For the following definitions see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.

Defense: The defensive use of force is the deployment of military power so as to be able to do two things - to ward off an attack and to minimize damage to oneself if attacked. For defensive purposes a state will direct its forces against those of a potential or actual attacker, but not against his unarmed population.

Deterrence: The deterrent use of force is the deployment of military power so as to be able to prevent an adversary from doing something that he does not want him to do and that he might otherwise be tempted to do by threatening him with unacceptable punishment is he does. Deterrence is thus the threat of retaliation.Its purpose is to prevent something undesirable from happening. The effectiveness of the threatvdepends upon a sate's ability to to convince a potential adversary that it has both the will and the power to punish him severely if he undertakes the undesirable action in question.

Swaggering: The objectives for swaggering are more diffuse. Generally swaggering involves only the peaceful use of force and it aims to enhace the national pride of a people or two to satisfy the personal ambitions of its ruler. A state or a statesman swaggers in order to loo and feel more powerful and important, to be taken seriously by the others.

Security Dilemma: A country can never fully know the intentions of its neighbors, making defensive measures appear threatening or aggressive, creating the security dilemma. This frequently leads to arms races, even if the countries involved have no intention of using force.

Washington consensus: set of principles that informed economic liberalization policies of South in 1990s. Some of these principles were forced on the South by coercive actions of the U.S. or structural adjustment/austerity programs imposed by the World Bank and IMF. Others were adopted voluntarily. The consensus was focused on fiscal discipline, spending on public goods, tax reform, privatization, and deregulation.