International Relations Theory
1. Absolute Advantage – a term coined by Adam Smith describing the superiority of a country/individual/etc in its productivity when producing a certain good compared to another country/individual/etc
2. Absolute gains The total benefits that accrue to a state as a consequence of its interactions with other states without regard to the benefits that accrue to others. Liberals argue that states are the most concerned with absolute gains and that they provide a basis for cooperation in world politics. Taken from: How the World Works by Russell Bova
3. Anarchy is the simple reality that within the international system composed of nation states, there exists no overarching authority. Each state maintains its own autonomy with respect to every other state; no international government exists. This renders the system chaotic and unpredictable, but not necessarily destined for conflict. See: John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, Kenneth Waltz, The Anarchic Structure of World Politics, Hobbes Absence of political hierarchy and central authority
4. Appeasement The act of making compromises or concessions in order to avoid a potentially costly war. The most common example would be the actions on the part of Great Britain toward Nazi Germany in the build up to World War II.
5. Asian values – a controversial term expressing the perspective that values such as human rights and freedom and inherently western and have no relevance to the reality of the Asian political world. To an extent it describes some of the current Asian regimes; however, it is misleading in its claim that such values don’t exist at all, rather they have been suppressed.
6. Autarky Autarky is the ability to be self-sufficient. It is most commonly used when referring to economics, when a country can survive without external assistance. Autarky does not have to refer to economics though. A military autarky would be one that could defend itself without outside help. [1]
7. Balance of Power
8. Balance of Threat
9. Bandwagoning As a state increases its capabilities and appears to be a rising power, other states side with it, rather than balancing against it. States are more likely to bandwagon with the rising power, when: -there are no clear allies with which to balance against the rising power. -war appears imminent
10. Billiard Ball Model
11. Bipolarity Two major global superpowers that dominate the international system, struggling to find the balance of power. This was a huge component during the Cold War.
12. Bretton Woods System
13. Buck-passing
14. Bureaucratic Politics of Governmental Politics Model
15. Chain-ganging
16. Chapter VII Authority
17. Clash of Civilizations Samuel Huntington, presents us with a post-cold war paradigm: that increasingly, geopolitics delineate themselves along broad culture boundaries. All modern conflicts are the result of this "clash of civilizations." These conflicts are all the more irreconcilable as they are related to culture and identity. Huntington identifies seven distinct "civilizations": sinic, or Chinese civilization, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic, Orthodox, centered in Russia, Western and Latin America. He also concedes that there may be an African civilization, but, and I quote: "most major scholars of civilization except Braudel do not recognize a distinct African civilization." See: Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking World Order
18. Classical Realism
19. Coercion
20. Cold War- 1945-1995- escalation of tensions between the two superpowers in a bipolar post WWII world.
21. Collective Security
22. Commercial Liberalism
23. Commons (Tragedy of)
24. Comparative Advantage
25. Concert of Europe
26. Constructivism
27. Core & Periphery
28. Cuban Missile Crisis was the thirteen day period in October 1962 that many believe brought the world to the brink of MAD and was the climax of the Cold War. Khrushchev secretly transported nuclear missiles into Cuba, which threatened the security of the US. In return President Kennedy announced a blockade of Cuba, which under International Law is an act of war. After peaceful negotiations and certain compromises, the Russians agreed to retract the missiles from Cuba
29. Cultural Relativism
30. Customs Union
Defense: The defensive use of force is the deployment of military power so as to be able to do two things - to ward off an attack and to minimize damage to oneself if attacked. For defensive purposes a state will direct its forces against those of a potential or actual attacker, but not against his unarmed population.
Democratic Peace Theory Based on the empirical observation that democracies have historically tended not to fight wars against one another, this theory suggests that the spread of democratic government can be the antidote to war in the international system. Proponents of this theory point to either democratic norms (such as a shared belief in human rights) or actual democratic political structures to explain the lesser incidence of war between democracies. This concept is highly debated. Realists suggest that this phenomenon is actually caused by the prevalence of alliance ties between democracies, which are a function of realist power concerns. John Mearsheimer (a prominent realist) has suggested that democracies are few in number and thus statistically have less opportunities to go to war. For a good analysis of the validity of the democratic peace theory, see this [2]
Demonstration Effects
Dependency theory: Component of structuralism/neo Marxism. The idea that the periphery does not benefit from liberal international economic order, it is instead dependent on the core. The relationship between the core and the periphery relationship is exploitative, promoting development of the core but not the periphery. The core relies on periphery markets and so establishes structures that perpetuate core dominance. Local elites monopolize domestic power and cooperate with international capitalist elites to perpetuate capitalist system.
Détente This word comes from the French, meaning a "relaxation of tensions." In political science, the term specifically refers to the relaxation of Cold War tensions that took place between the US and the Soviet Union during the 1970s. Taken from: How the World Works by Russell Bova
Deterrence: The deterrent use of force is the deployment of military power so as to be able to prevent an adversary from doing something that he does not want him to do and that he might otherwise be tempted to do by threatening him with unacceptable punishment is he does. Deterrence is thus the threat of retaliation.Its purpose is to prevent something undesirable from happening. The effectiveness of the threatvdepends upon a state's ability to to convince a potential adversary that it has both the will and the power to punish him severely if he undertakes the undesirable action in question.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
Economic Interdependence
Economic Sanctions
Emissions Trading
Ethnic Cleansing
European Union
Export-led growth: becomes the ruling model for South by 1980s-1990s. Founded on the idea that export growth in conjunction with protectionism will lead to maximized production efficiency, increased earnings, and increase in foreign exchange for development. This strategy was aimed at expanding overseas markets to the North by improving competition abroad. This was done by diversifying domestic export industries and industrializing. The central idea was to develop the economy in such a way that it would strongly appeal to foreign, developed markets. South switched to this model of growth following the failures of the NIEO and ISI strategy, the success of Asian tigers, and Northern pressures to liberalize under the Washington Consensus.
Feminism-- this is the theory that international relations would be different if more women were in power positions, and that politics is traditionally viewed through a male perspective.
Free Rider
Free Trade-breaks down trade barriers and creates international connections which lead to new interests and priorities in the hopes of World peace
Free Trade Agreement/ Area (FTA)
G20
G7 & G8
GATT
Glastnost and perestroika: are, respectively, the policies of “openness” and “restructuring,” which Mikhail Gorbachev pursued as a general secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR between 1985 and 1991, which had the aim of complementing one another towards renovating the Soviet political system and society. Glastnost was analogous to the freedom of speech and publication. Its immediate effect was and an flux of reports about corruption and criminality as well as state crimes, while perestroika encouraged political democratization through an introduction of contested election and new political institutions, as well as economic liberalization through legalization of cooperative and other semi-private business enterprises. The policies had a catastrophic effect on Gorbachev’s political career, because they undermined public confidence in his ability to govern successfully. See this [3]
Global Warming
Globalization
Groupthink The tendency, most often found in small, cohesive groups operating under conditions of stress, to abandon critical thinking in favor of viewpoints that reflect group solidarity. The term was coined by William Whyte, who claimed it was a "rationalized conformity—an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well." The most prominent researcher of groupthink was Irving Janis. Some scholars would point to the Bush administration and certain of its poor decisions as an example of this occurrence. See [4] from the New York Times, or this book review [5] which gives a concise and thorough overview of the topic.
Hegemonic Stability Theory
Hegemony
High & Low Politics
Human Rights; the definition of human or natural rights as the rights of each person simply as a human being specifies their character; they are rights. For the question of "what is it in human nature that gives rise to human rights?", there are two basic answers; that HR arise from human needs; and HR reflect the minimum requirements for human dignity or moral personality. From: "Human Rights in World Politics" from International Politics by Art and Jervis.
Human Security
Humanitarian Intervention
IAEA
IBRD: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, known as IBRD, is one of the five institutions that comprise the World Bank Group, including the 1) International Development Association, 2) International Finance Corporation, 3) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency and 4) International Center for Settlement of International Disputes The Banks was established immediately after the WWII to foster economic growth in post-war Europe and Japan. Today, its main goal is to fight poverty and encourage sustainable development through extension of loans to creditworthy governments and public enterprises. The bank raises its funds by selling its bonds on the world’s financial markets. Source: www.worldbank.org
ICC
ICJ
Idealism; it usually analyses politics in terms of 'norms' and 'ideals' as well as 'interests.' Idealism tends toward optimistic view of human nature and society, seeing cooperation as not only desirable but natural
IMF The International Monetary Fund was founded in 1944 as a part of the Bretton Woods Accord, to calm and solidify the international political economy. The IMF was a permanent institution to monitor a fixed currency, the “Gold Standard” which levied all international currencies off of the US dollar, which in turn was calculated from a specific weight of gold. As an observing body, the IMF intervened whenever a country’s currency fluctuated from more than one percent difference from the US dollar. The function of the IMF had to shift with the end of the Gold Standard. The IMF still serves to prevent crisis with emergency financing, but also to provide advice and to serve as a forum. All members donate a monetary quota that is calculated based on their relative wealth. This amount determines both the weight of their vote and the amount that they can be loaned. Members can borrow up to twenty-five percent of their quota and this is part of the new function of the IMF: that it buys out countries when they are close to defaulting on national loans, and the country is required to pay back the loan in their own currency with interest. See: http://www.imf.org/external/index.htm
Import substitution industrialization: designed to reduce imports via tariffs, quotas, multiple exchange rates, etc. The goal is to protect infant industries, allowing them to develop and grow, ultimately encouraging FDI. This strategy encourages diversification toward manufacturing and is biased toward exports. The strategy tends to start with production of consumer goods and evolve toward capital goods. Another facet of this strategy involves the purposeful overvaluation of currency so that foreigners can’t easily import your goods, making imports of selective components cheaper. This strategy fails to generate capital savings sufficient to finance the transition to capital goods production. So ISI does not necessarily lead to decline in imports, rather it changes the composition of imports. Ultimately, ISI produces balance of trade deficits and creates weak, non-internationally competitive industries while weakening traditional exports. By the 1970s, the developing world realized that ISI was no longer a viable economic strategy.
Interdependence
Intergovernmental Organizations
International Organization
Just War Doctrine – Aquinas & St Augustine – there is authority of a sovereign; a random citizen may not declare war. There must be just cause – a valid reason to avenge wrong and right injustice; and rightful intention to advance good and fight evil.
Grotius expanded on this theory by saying that a just war can be ended as soon as possible, since the losses dues to war do not make it profitable. Sacrifice interests for peace; not war.
Kyoto Protocol
73. League of Nations Established in 1919, it was the first 20th century effort to create a global system of collective security in which an attack on one member would be viewed as an attack upon all.
74. Leviathan – Hobbes – subterfuge is the way to survive, there is no place for principles. All men are the same and predisposed to want the same things, and this leads to war and violence. Those who claim peace are simply afraid of death. -men are equal unitis -men interact with no central authority -men are driven by certain motives: competition, diffidnce-fear of losing something, and glory -Life is brutish and short with no right and wrong. No common power, law or justice
74. Leviathan: It was a book written by Thomas Hobbs in 1651, during the English civil war. Hobbs explained that conflicts and competitions are inevitable due to the state of nature, where human being has equal right to get what they want. Thus, he argued for a strong legitimate government in order to control “war of all against all.”
75. Liberal Institutionalism The belief in international institutions and an inter-governmental body that has continuity in relations, trade, sanctions and embargoes, Reciprocity to address grievances, and a source of flow of information and technology.This model is non-state centric.
75. Liberal Institutionalism: Founded by Michael Doyle. Approach international institutions to reduce the anarchy of the international system, because they believe that a formal system of international law able to regulate and constrain the behavior of states. The ultimate goal is to maintain peace and security through institutions and avoid the use of violence “war”
76. Liberal internationalism belief in international principles, trade to prevent war. Ideas derived from Kant.
76. Liberal Internationalism: Founded by Michael Doyle and derived from Kant’s notion of republican government as an important source of “perpetual peace.” Kant argued that war does not do any good and democratic citizen avoid war (democratic peace theory).
77. Liberalism:Originated from Immanuel Kant. Liberalist believes that significant global cooperation is possible and that we can move beyond the conflict over power. The key assumption is that peace and cooperation among states can produce absolute gains for all.
78. Linkage: Both, President Nixon and the Soviet wanted to ease tension; because Vietnam War was becoming more unpopular and Soviet was facing economic difficulty. Thus, Henry Kissinger founded this strategy in the 1970s which allow Soviet access to U.S. trade, in hoping it would encourage “good behavior” on the part of Soviet Union around the world.
Long Peace
Marxism 1920-1990 founded by Karl Marx wrote the "communist manifesto" explaining how to live in a communist society
Mercantilism
Millennium Development Goals In September 2000, world leaders came together at United Nations Headquarters in New York to adopt the United Nations Milennium Declaration, committing their nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets - with a deadline of 2015 - that have become known as the Millennium Development Goals. See: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkgd.shtml
Multilateral Treaties
Multipolarity
Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) A condition of mutual deterrence in which, in the event of a nuclear war, each side has the capability to inflict an unacceptable damage on the other. Thus, neither side would presumably initiate the use of nuclear weapons. This situation necessitates both sides having sufficient weapons to retaliate (see second strike capability). From: How the World Works by Russell Bova
Nation, State, and Nation-state Nation-formed through the involvement of cultural, religious, and ethnic ties, not ideals State- primary actor in international relations. Components of a State: 1. Permanent population 2. Recognition from other countries 3.Defined territory 4.government capable of maintaining border. A state must be have a monopoly on the use of force and the power of taxation. Nation-state-the civic mechanics of a state combined with the ties of ethnic groups
National Interest
Nationalism
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (or OTAN in French) is the intergovernmental military alliance that was created in 1949 at the advent of the Cold War. It was the first contract of collective security that the US participated in. One of the immediate reactions was the creation of the Warsaw Pact between the Soviet bloc countries. The fundamental structure and function of the NATO alliance was the West against the Soviet Union, but has shifted since the fall of the Berlin Wall. NATO first saw action during the Korean War. France was resentful of the prominent roles of the US and Great Britain, and withdrew from the military component of the alliance in 1959. As the Cold War escalated, NATO played a consistent role, upholding the policies of détente, etc. At the end of the Cold War, NATO quickly became integrally involved in the crises in the Balkans. NATO had the flexibility to react with military might when the UN could not. There are currently 28 independent members from North America and Europe, who are committed to upholding the freedom and security of all the member states. See: http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/index.htm
Neo-conservatism
Non-Governmental Organization (NGO)
Non-Discrimination
Non-tariff barriers (NTBs): non-tariff forms of restricting trade. These NTBs discriminate against imports and represent an exception to the free trade concept instituted under the GATT. Forms of NTBs include quotas, anti-dumping legislation, voluntary export restraints, and orderly market agreements, which are effectively multi-country VERs.
NPT
Nuclear Proliferation/ Non-Proliferation
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): cartel in which many members are among the largest global exporters of oil. The purpose of OPEC is to regulate the supply of petroleum and thereby stabilize (often by raising) its price. OPEC was ascendant between 1973 and 1980 because of increased competition within the petroleum industry, increased producer-state bargaining, and increased oil dependency of the developed world. Saudi Arabia served as the lynchpin within OPEC, serving as a swing producer.
Organizational Process/ Standard Operation Procedures
Organization for Security & Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
Outsourcing & Offshoring
P5 Permanent five members of the UN Security Council: the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia & China, who possess veto power on any decision. The UN Security Council is designed to "prevent another 1914 or 1939, in which the most powerful nations would exercise an effective monopoly on force." See: New York Times article "Who Needs the U.N. Security Council?" http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/17/magazine/17UNITED.html?scp=6&sq=UN%20p5&st=cse&pagewanted=all
Pax Britannica & Pax Americana
Peace Enforcement
Peacekeeping
Peacemaking
Peak Oil: where production is dwindling to levels inadequate to meet demand, which produces price spikes. Production can dwindle for a number of reasons included geology, environmental concerns regarding extraction, and the age of tough oil (oil is less accessible due to geopolitics).
Peloponnesian War: Greece 431-404bc. Thucydides was the first to write a purely human viewpoint in which he explianed the cause of the war was a distribution of power. Representation of Realist ideals. Struggle between Athens and Sparta because Sparta felt that Athens had become too powerful, the Coreyra/Corinth dispute, the sacking of pontideaea, and trade sanctions on Pegara
Positive-sum: scenario in which all parties can gain or profit. In the liberal model of comparative advantage, through trade, all parties can benefit. In this scenario, one’s gain is not another’s loss. This scenario considers absolute gains, whereby you are better off than you were before, as opposed to relative gains.
Power Transition
Pre-emptive War & Preventive War
Prisoner's Dilemma Game theory scenario developed by Albert W. Tucker. Two individuals are arrested by the police and accused of a crime. The police need more evidence in order to make a conviction, separate the individuals, and encourage each to testify against the other. If one individual cooperates, he will walk free and the other will receive a 10-year sentence. If neither cooperates, they will each receive a 6-month sentence. If both cooperate, they will each receive a 5-year sentence. The Prisoner's Dilemma scenario encourages insecurity & a zero-sum equation. It resembles a security dilemma. See: Brian Skyrms, PDF article. http://www.lps.uci.edu/home/fac-staff/faculty/skyrms/StagHunt.pdf
Protectionism
Rational Actor Model
Realism; it analyzes politics in terms of 'interests' as power. Realism tends toward a passimistic view of human nature and society, seeing conflict as inherent and inevitable. Classical Realism- Morganthau- anarchy is assumed as a prominent concern in international relations,with the international system as the focus of analysis. States are hard-wired for power they seek more and more power and this leads to war. -power is mans control over the minds and actions of other men -international relations is a struggle for power -states cannot die for a moral reason and cannot sacrifice themselves -no morality in international politics -States are suspicious of other states, calculated, prudent and cautious, no permanent friends or enemies only permanent interests
-Neo-realism: Waltz- realism is a description of a system and states are trapped in a structure. like the classical realists, neorealist believe that anarchy exists. Countries create a distribution of capabilities and power--> relative gain. The primary goal is survival and the focus of analysis is power, and there is a clear distincition between domestic and international politics:
-International Politics: states are actors, there is a lack of hierarchy, all states behave the same no matter their structure of government
-Domestic politics: not all groups are egual, they are different units
Realists – Bismark, Machiavelli, Kissinger – analyze politics in terms of power; conflict is the natural way of things
Realpolitik: refers to a type of foreign policy, according to which concern for the security of the state (raison d’etat) is primary to any other concern, including ideology or moral dilemmas. Realpolitik also calls for pragmatism in calculating power and national interests by building military capabilities, creating alliances, or making concessions, which also reduce the chance of conflict. [6]
Relative gains The benefits that accrue to a state from its international interactions assessed in comparison to the benefits that accrue to other states. Realists argue that states are most concerned with relative gains and that this concern is a source of tension and conflict in world politics. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova
Relative Power
SALT & START
Secure second strike capability The ability of a country with nuclear weapons to ride out an initial nuclear attack with enough retaliatory capability left intact to do unacceptable damage to one's adversary. From: How the World Works by Russell Bova
Security Competition
Security Dilemma: A country can never fully know the intentions of its neighbors, making defensive measures appear threatening or aggressive, creating the security dilemma. This frequently leads to arms races, even if the countries involved have no intention of using force.
Self-help
Soft Power
Sovereignty Comes from within a territory, having the authority to establish and enforce its own rules
Stability/ Instability Paradox
Stag Hunt Game theory scenario developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Two hunters must decide whether to hunt hare or stags, and whether to hunt separately or together. They will each get something if they work separately. However, they will each get more if they work together in capturing a stag. This model encourages social cooperation and a positive-sum equation. While the Prisoner's Dilemma scenario is widely-known and cited, the Stag Hunt scenario is considered more realistic and helpful in IR theory. See: Brian Skyrms, PDF article. http://www.lps.uci.edu/home/fac-staff/faculty/skyrms/StagHunt.pdf
State of Nature
State of War
Status Quo & Revisionist Powers
Strategic Defense Initiative
Structural Realism (Neo-Realism)
Supranational Organization
Swaggering: The objectives for swaggering are more diffuse. Generally swaggering involves only the peaceful use of force and it aims to enhace the national pride of a people or two to satisfy the personal ambitions of its ruler. A state or a statesman swaggers in order to loo and feel more powerful and important, to be taken seriously by the others.
Tariff
Terrorism
Total War
Treaty of Westphalia- 1648 ended the 30 years War, defined regions and abolished the hierarchy
Two-level Game
UN Commission on Human Rights & Council on Human Rights
UN General Assembly
UN Security Council
Unipolarity
Unitary Actor Model
United Nations
Waltz's "Three Images" of International Relations In 1959, Waltz's book "Man, the State, and War" attempted to formulate a structural realist theory which classified theories of international relations into three categories, or levels of analysis. 1st Image: Individual, Human Nature. 2nd Image: State, Regime, Type. 3rd Image: System level (as a whole). see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.
Washington consensus set of principles that informed economic liberalization policies of South in 1990s. Some of these principles were forced on the South by coercive actions of the U.S. or structural adjustment/austerity programs imposed by the World Bank and IMF. Others were adopted voluntarily. The consensus was focused on fiscal discipline, spending on public goods, tax reform, privatization, and deregulation. see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.
World Health Organization (WHO)
WTO
Zero Sum OR Fixed Sum is a term in international relations and economics which describes a situation where the gains and the losses of a party are reversely proportionate to the gains and losses of another. In other words the total gains minus the total losses equal zero. It usually creates a highly tense and competitive dynamic. see: International Politics, enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues by R. Art and R. Jervis.
