Agricultural run-off sp 09

--Kerstin 08:48, 3 April 2009 (EDT)

Agricultural Runoff

Agricultural Runoff occurs when water from rain or melted snow cannot be held by the soil and therefore runs off into surrounding bodies of water. Runoff moves over the soil collecting pollution from soil erosion, feeding operations, grazing, plowing, animal waste, and application of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizer. This pollution then causes runoff into nearby ponds, lakes, coastal waters, and underground sources of drinking water harming both human health and ecosystems.(Mackenzie)on this site we will be focusing on the agricultural runoff produced by Conventional, Organic, and Amish farming and possible policy changes to prevent it.

Non-Point Discharge

Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is called a non-point source. This differs from point discharge where all pollutants are collected and discarded from one point. When there is an area of land that has multiple point and non-point sources that drain to one common point this area is referred to as a watershed.(EPA) Pennsylvania alone contains a portion of 57 different watersheds.(Scorecard) Agricultural runoff is a large contributor to non-point discharge. Some of the polluters that the EPA associate with Agricultural runoff are:

• Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas

• Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production

• Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream banks

• Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines

• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems

• Pollutants resulting from atmospheric deposition and hydromodification.

This is an image of point and non-point discharge in a sample watershed

Leaching versus Runoff and Erosion

There are two main ways that nutrients are washed away from agricultural fields into the watershed system. Leaching occurs when nutrients move downwards into the soil beyond the reach of the plants' use. This usually happens because negatively nutrients, such as nitrates, cannot bind with soil particles and instead move in between them and into the groundwater. Runoff occurs with positively charged nutrients such as phosphorus, which bind with soil particles and are washed over the soil and into waterways (Bellows 2002).

Conventional Agriculture

Conventional Agriculture is an industrialized agricultural system characterized by mechanization, monocultures, and the use of synthetic inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, with an emphasis on maximizing productivity and profitability.(UC Davis)

A History of Conventional Farming

Before the 1900's farming was a typical American family lifestyle. Families lived on farms raising hogs, cattle, sheep, chickens, and planting corn to sustain themselves. Although this was the way of life, the production was often very small, and families suffered. This American way of farming began to change during the last half of the 1800's but made it's biggest changes in the last half of the 20th century.

In the late 1800's developments in both technology and "medicines" for agricultural use became readily available. With the addition of fertilizers and pesticides some major crops tripled in yield. These new technologies and creations not only increased productivity but also decreased the labor intensity of farming. As time went on there was more and more of a push to find new technologies and use more fertilizers and pesticides to continue increasing production. This was how conventional farming as we know it came to be.

As conventional farming became less of the typical way of family life in America it became more important to have large corporate companies instead of the small family ones that dominated the country before the 20th century. Farming has become a business enterprise instead of a way of life. The farmer that is the most productive now is the one that not only has a green thumb but also has a business degree. Those farms that continue to hold onto the old definition of conventional farming and farm on a small scale have a very difficult time surviving in the new market.(Trautmann)

What are pesticides?

Pesticides are substances that are used to control, destroy, repel or attract pests to limit their harmful effects. Pests are organisms like weeds, fungi, bacteria, viruses, insects that can have a negative impact on human life ( including our food sources and our animals). The reason pests are such a problem is because they can destroy food supplies, lowering production. Pesticides are used in situations such as livestock farming, cropping, home gardening, forestry, homes, hospitals, kitchens, roadsides, recreational and industrial areas. Clearly becoming a staple of conventional farming and our lives in general.(Kent)

Pesticides may be derived from inorganic sources (copper, sulphur), natural organic sources (plants) or be organic compounds synthesized in a laboratory. The synthesized products mimic the properties of natural organism and nutrients in nature. Pesticides have begum to be widely used in the past 50 years, and they were a major contributor to the evolution of conventional farming.( Kent)

The two major types of pesticides used in Conventional Agriculture and Herbicides and Insecticides.

An herbicide is used to kill unwanted plants. Most herbicides are selective, which means that they kill the intended plant while leaving the crop relatively unharmed.Many of these act as synthetic hormones for weeds, preventing growth. Because of their effectiveness and widespread use herbicides are now responsible for 70% of Agricultural pesticide use.(Kellogg)

An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects in all developmental forms. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century. Almost all insecticides can significantly alter ecosystems when runoff of fields and when overused in soil. Many of these insecticides are also toxic to humans, while others can bio accumulate in food webs.(Miller)

"Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species".(Miller)

Health effects of pesticides

Asthma- Found in workers that used pesticides Birth Defects- Higher percentage of birth defects where herbicides were widely used Limb reduction defects Cleft palate Hypospadia undescended testicles

Neurological effects- Short term effects/ exposure - dizziness, feeling light headed, confusion and people may experience reduced coordination and ability to think long term exposure can result in reduced IQ and brain damage

Cancer- Incidence of acute lymphocytic leukemia rose 27.4% between 1973 and 1990, from 2.8 cases per 100,000 children to 3.5 cases per 100,000 children. From 1973 to 1994, incidence of childhood brain cancer increased 39.6%. Wilms tumor incidence in the same years rose 45.6%. In teens aged 15-19 between 1973 and 1995, cancer incidence rose for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, testicular cancer, and ovarian cancer drastically and all cancers as well Thirty-seven pesticides have limited, suggestive or sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals.

Hormone Disruption- Twenty-four pesticides still on the market, including 2,4-D, lindane and atrazine, are known endocrine-disrupters. Increases in reproductive cancers Endometriosis Hypospadias Undescended testicles Precocious puberty Reduced sperm count Fertility problems(Kids for saving earth)

Environmental Effects of pesticides

Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems have been studied since the 1970s when a quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticides that would reach surface waters, given current environmental conditions and the amounts on soil. The large interest in this was due to the fact that pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life,pesticides have the ability to kill entire ecosystems. One example of this was in Sutherland's Hole river on Prince Edward Island in Canada. In one year there were nine "fish kills" reported. Everything was killed (fish, snakes, all aquatic life) in the river near a grouping of potato farms from which herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides ran off after heavy rains.(Toughill)

Fertilizers

Most fertilizers that are commonly used in agriculture contain the three basic plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. "micro nutrients," are also used in many fertilizers, which contain metals such as zinc, that are necessary for plant growth.

These fertilizers are materials that are used in agriculture primarily to enhance the "health" of soil so that it is more productive. Fertilizers can be made from waste and used in sustainable practices, but are often over used in conventional farming leading to runoff into nearby bodies of water.The fertilizers that are used for this purpose (instead of primarily for plant health) are commonly referred to as soil amendments.

Both fertilizers and soil amendments can be derived from various material. These include raw materials, organic matter (such as compost), sewage sludge, and industrial waste.Overuse of fertilizers has resulted in contamination of surface water and groundwater.(EPA)

The major concern for fertilizer run off is the amounts of phosphorous and nitrogen that are added to both drinking water and ecosystems.

Organic Agriculture

Organic agriculture is the production of food without using genetically modified organisms, sewage sludge, or synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers.(Pimental et al. 2005)

A History of U.S. Organic Farming

Until World War II, artificial fertilizers and large-scale agriculture were non-existent. Small, family owned farms used crop rotation (changing the types of crops that occupy a certain piece of land regularly), cover crops (usually non-food producing crops which revitalize the land in the off-season or during the fallow season), and natural fertilizers such as manure to keep their crops healthy and productive.

The chemicals used in Vietnam were eventually adopted for agricultural use, resulting in some of our current conventional farming methods.

In 1962, Rachel Carson released Silent Spring, which led Americans to begin to question the artificial products used in agriculture. Since then, and especially in recent years, buying organic produce has become more and more popular.

The USDA National Organic Program

According to the USDA, "The National Organic Program (NOP) develops, implements, and administers national production, handling, and labeling standards for organic agricultural products. The NOP also accredits the certifying agents (foreign and domestic) who inspect organic production and handling operations to certify that they meet USDA standards."

While some farmers choose to produce food organically but not to become USDA certified because of the extra costs, most do opt for the certification. This enables their consumers to be sure that certain standards are met.

The USDA authorizes state, private, and foreign organizations and people to be "certifying agents", who regulate organic certification. In order for a farm to become a recognized USDA Organic operation, they must submit an application including the type of operation to be certified, a history of substances applied to land for the last 3 years (farms cannot be approved until 3 years of organic farming has been practiced), the organic products being grown, raised, or processed, and the organic system plan (OSP), which explains the practices, inputs, and methods of monitoring that will be used to abide by organic regulations (USDA Fact Sheet, Certification).

Producers must label their products in accordance with the percentage of organic goods in the item. "100 percent Organic" can only include organically produced food, while "Organic" must only contain 95% organic material; both can use the USDA seal. Processed food with at least 70% organic produce can be labeled "Made with Organic Ingredients" but cannot use the seal (USDA Fact Sheet Organic).

Overview of Current Regulations

The Organic Food Production Act of 1990 mandates a National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances that contains which synthetic inputs can be used, as well as which natural inputs cannot be used (USDA, "The National").

Organic certification mandates that farmers:

1. "Select and implement tillage and cultivation practices that maintain or improve the physical, chemical and biological condition of soil and minimize erosion.

2. Manage crop nutrients and soil fertility through rotations, cover crops, and the application of plant materials.

3. Manage plant and animal materials to maintain or improve soil organic matter content in a manner that does not contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water by plant nutrients, pathogenic organisms, heavy metals, or residues of prohibited substances." (OFPA Section §205.203).

The Results of Current Regulations

Nitrate Leaching: Nitrate leaching occurs up to 50% less in organic than in conventional agriculture. This is mostly because there is no additional nitrogen added to the soils; only clover and grasses, which carry nitrogen, are cropped in the off-seasons (Smilde 1989, Eltun, 1995 Haas et al. 2002. The reduction in N runoff is also attributed to no-till agriculture, when used (Trewavas 2004).

Soil Erosion: According to the EPA, soil erosion is the most common runoff from agricultural practices. When sediments reach waterways, they can block sunlight for aquatic plants, clog fish gills, as well as carry more harmful particles with them.

Organic agriculture has been shown to maintain a soil protection index (i.e. retain soil) up to 80% higher than in conventional farming. This is mainly due to crop rotation, cover crops, and fewer row crops such as corn. Organic farming does involve some practices that can lead to more erosion, such as: more disturbance due to mechanical tillage, wider row distances, slower growth because there is less nitrogen in the soil, and destruction of crops because of diseases.

Phosphorus Runoff: Phosphorus is generally less of a problem for organic farms than it is in conventional agriculture (Stockdale et al. 2002). This is because organic farmers tend to manage their applications of manure, which produces the majority of excess phosphorus, more closely. However, livestock farms may have more difficulty monitoring this and therefore need to monitor their phosphorus runoff more attentively (Bellows 2002).

Pathogens: Pathogens are disease-causing organisms, which are found in manure. Humans can negatively be affected when consuming organic produce or using water, which has had close exposure to manure. To avoid these problems, the NOP mandates the carbon to nitrate ratio of the compost to begin at between 25:1 and 40:1. The compost must also remain heated for a specified time and temperature. Finally, manure cannot be applied in direct contact with produce up to 120 days before harvest, or indirect contact up to 90 days before harvest.

Pesticides and Herbicides: In general, organic agriculture avoids using pesticides and herbicides. Instead, natural predator-prey relationships are encouraged, and crop rotation and diversity help minimize weed problems. Copper sulfate is one example of an allowed substance on the NOP National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances, which can be used if necessary and only in small amounts (Bellows 2002).

Heavy Metals: The NOP regulations generally avoids the build-up of metals such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper, zinc, and iron through its prohibition of sludge and sewage waste (Bellows 2002). However, manure from non-organic livestock can spread these to organic farms; organic farmers must monitor the soils for heavy metals for this reason.

The Dickinson College Farm

The farm has been owned by Dickinson since the 1960's; however, it was leased out and farmed conventionally. In 2007, part of the farm was put under the direction of Jenn Halpin, who has been working towards an organic system since. After 3 years of organic practices is complete, the College Farm will be eligible for USDA Organic certification.

The Economic Benefits of Conventional versus Organic Farming

The Rodale Insitute in Kutztown, PA conducted an extensive 22 year study comparing the economic benefits of conventional versus organic farming practices. This study found that crop yields were fairly similar between conventional and organic farms. Pimental et al. note, however, that other studies have found a significantly lower yield from the organic fields than the conventional ones (2005).

In general, it seems that the higher prices that consumers pay for organic goods are either equal or higher than conventional produce- sometimes 20%-140% higher (Pimental et al. 2005). Through this price difference, organic farming profits equal or outweigh conventional farming.

Additionally, the sustainability of organic farming practices allows for longer land-use without the need to use outside inputs, which increase costs. For this reason, Pimental et al. recommend that conventional farmers at least incorporate organic techniques, such as:

"1. Employing off-season cover crops; 2. Using more extended crop rotations, which act both to conserve soil and water resources and also to reduce insect, disease, and weed problems; 3. Increasing the level of soil organic matter, which helps conserve water resources and mitigates drought effects on crops; 4. Employing natural biodiversity to reduce or eliminate the use of nitrogen fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides" (2005).

Amish Agriculture

Background on the Amish

Approximately 70 percent of the Amish population lives in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana and there are also smaller communities throughout the Midwest. The Amish can be classified into two different groups, Old Order Amish and New Order Amish. The Old Order Amish are more conservative and do not use any modern technology, whereas the New Order Amish use a limited about of technology, including milking machines and telephones. Also, Old Order Amish tend to have smaller farms. Many of the farming practices overlap between the different groups, such as the use of crop rotation. Also, both groups are very religious and this influences daily practice (Hooreman 2002).

Cultural Influences

Religious beliefs influence how the Amish approach farming. They do believe it is their duty to protect natural resources and therefore they attempt to use soil productively but to not exploit it. One study found “the Amish are significantly more likely than non-Amish to be aware of potential ground water pollution problems and to be more willing to act to prevent degradation of the resource” (Sommers 1993, pg. 138).

Another important aspect of their culture is community unity. They maintain farming practices that attempt to prevent environmental degradation because they would not want to cause harm to their neighbors. Not only are the Amish concerned with maintaining a unified community with other farms, but they also assert the need for family unity. Farming is able to encourage family solidarity because when they work together on the field they are sharing a common goal to be productive and they are also spending time together. These beliefs influence their choices on what technologies to use and the amount in which they are used because certain technology decreases the need for farm labor. Certain modern innovations are therefore seen as potential threats to community strength and family solidarity.

The lack of technology does not mean environmental degradation is occurring. They do avoid technologies that could reverse affects of agricultural pollution, but that gives them incentive to prevent it. Since they do not utilize household water filtering systems, they take action to prevent ground water pollution to protect their families. Actions utilized include, using less fertilizer or preventing erosion. One study found that “non-Amish apply much higher rates of fertilizer than do Amish land operators” (Sommers 1993, pg. 142). Also, staying within the community keeps the Amish relatively isolated but this does not affect their awareness of contemporary environmental issues (Sommers 1993). When 191 Amish farmers were made aware of total coli form bacteria and E. coli in their water, 85 percent of the farmers changed their practices to improve the water quality (Hoorman 2002).

Amish Farming Practices

One farming practice implemented by the Amish is crop rotation, which depletes soil nitrogen at a significantly lower rate than conventional practices. The long-term application of manure as a fertilizer has proved to increase soil nitrogen. They also use horses as their main source of power to till and plow the fields. The use of horses to till fields has positive impacts on the soil. For one, the water infiltration rates are “approximately seven times higher in the Amish system” compared to conventional no-till practices (Bane 1991, pg. 2). Also, erosion due to run-off is recorded as being significantly less of an issue on Amish farms. Erosion in general is less of an issue because they use horses to plow the fields (Bane 1991).

Amish farmers generally use very little commercial fertilizers and if they do, they will usually use natural or organic fertilizers. When used, commercial fertilizers are applied at low rates. Manure is generally the main fertilizer used by Amish farmer, specifically poultry manure. It is often found that fields closest to the barns tend to high in nutrients because the manure is very heavy and unlike conventional agriculture, humans are transferring the manure. A study on the fertility level of Amish farms looked at nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium by taking over one thousand soil tests. The study shows that for phosphorus levels, 40 percent are low, 40 percent are adequate, and 20 percent are high. For potassium, 17 percent of Amish fields are low, 62.2 percent are adequate and 20.8 percent are high. Generally, the Amish fields had either adequate or high levels of nitrogen (Hoorman 2002).

Although, nutrient run-off from the fields is less compared to conventional agriculture run-off, issues do arise from livestock. Fences are generally not utilized to keep the livestock out of the streams; therefore manure in the streams has increased nutrients found in the streams. There has recently been a movement to begin utilizing fences (Bane 1991).

Current Regulation in Pennsylvania

In 1987, Congress amended the Clean Water Act (CWA) establishing Nonpoint Source Management Program, section 319. This amendment was made in order to increase federal assistance for State and local efforts at reducing nonpoint source pollutants. The new legislation provides for grant money to be given to States, Territories, and Indian Tribes for supporting all aspects of nonpoint source implementation projects (EPA, "Clean").

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), water quality assessments performed by individual States continue to show that nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of damage to surface waters of the U.S. The major non point source pollutants from agricultural, as described by the EPA, include nutrients, sediment, animal wastes, salts, and pesticides.

Monitoring NPS pollution is difficult because runoff does not emanate from a single point, but leaves every farm in so many places that accurate monitoring is essentially impossible (USDA/Economic).

Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency[1], the National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture provides officials at the state and local level with guidance for the implementation of nonpoint source pollution management programs. The document contains information on the best available, economically achievable means of reducing pollution of surface and ground water from agriculture. The National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture is over three hundred pages of in-depth of management and measurement practices for NPS pollution. This includes guidelines for nutrient and pesticide management, erosion and sediment control, animal feeding operations and grazing management.

Possible Solutions to Minimize Environmental Impacts

Nonpoint-source pollution (NPS) occurs at inefficiently high levels because farmers have no incentive to consider the externalities of their production (USDA/ Economic). An efficient solution for nonpoint source pollution should maximize expected economic benefits. Thus, a basic cost-benefit analysis of NPS pollution would be the private net benefits of production minus the economic cost of pollution.

Cost-effective environmental policies are considered as such if they achieve some measurable objectives or goals at lowest possible cost. This is why strategies for water quality protection, such as NPS reduction, are heavily dependent on both intended goals and policy for achieving those goals (USDA/ Economic).

PA

In their 2007 annual report on non-point source pollution, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PDEP) laid out the following five goals (Pennsylvania):

"Goal 1: Improve and protect water resources as a result of nonpoint source program implementation efforts. Show water resource improvements by measuring reductions in sediments, nutrients and metals or increases in aquatic life use, riparian habitat, wetlands, or public health benefits. By 2012, through combined program efforts, remove 500 miles of streams and 1,600 lake acres that are identified on the State’s Integrated List of All Waters as being impaired because of nonpoint sources of pollution.

Goal 2: Coordinate with watershed groups, local governments, and others in the development and implementation of 20 watershed implementation plans meeting EPA’s Section 319 criteria to protect and restore surface and groundwater quality.

Goal 3: Improve and develop monitoring efforts to determine how projects and programs improve water quality and/or meet target pollution reductions including total maximum daily loads.

Goal 4: Encourage development and use of new technologies, tools, and technology transfer practices, to enhance understanding and use of techniques for addressing nonpoint source pollution.

Goal 5: Assure implementation of appropriate best management practices to protect, improve and restore water quality by using or enhancing the existing financial incentives, technical assistance, education and regulatory programs."

How Management Practices Work to Prevent Nonpoint Source Pollution

Minimizing the amount of pollutants available (source reduction);

Retarding the transport and/or delivery of pollutants, either by reducing water transported, and thus the amount of the pollutant transported, or through deposition of the pollutant;

Remediating or intercepting the pollutant before or after it is delivered to the water resource through chemical or biological transformation (National)

When considering policy creation for nonpoint source pollution other important factors include economic incentives, available technology, liability and education (USDA/ Economic).

Last Word

“Researchers concluded from a nine year case study of farming practices in Pennsylvania mentioned above that when all resource costs associated with soil erosion are included, resource-conserving practices outperform conventional approaches by almost a two-to-one margin in net economic value per acre” (Bane 1991). For this reason, it is important to recognize that both environmental and economic benefits can be derived from using alternative farming practices.

Notes

Bane, G. 1991. It’s worth paying more: the benefits of alternative agriculture. Journal of Pesticide Reform 11, No. 2: 21-23. < http://eap.mcgill.ca/MagRack/JPR/JPR_13.htm>.

Bellows, B. 2002. Protecting water quality on organic farms. National Center for Appropriate Technology.

EPA, Clean Waters Act Section 319: Laws, Regulations, Treaties: http://www.epa.gov/nps/cwact.html

Hoorman, J. J. 2002. Amish water quality and nutrient management education. Ohio State University Extension. <http://acwi.gov/monitoring/conference/2002/Papers-Alphabetical%20by%20First%20Name/Jim%20Hoorman-Amish.pdf>.

EPA, 2003. National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Pollution from Agriculture: http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/agmm/chap3.pdf

Pennsylvania Nonpoint Source Management Program FFY2007 Annual Report: http://www.depweb.state.pa.us/watershedmgmt/lib/watershedmgmt/nonpoint_source/initiatives/2007_nps_annual_report_entire_document.pdf

Pimental, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D., Seidel, R. 2005. Environmental, energetic, and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. Bioscience 55, No. 7: 573-582.

Rodale Insitute website: http://www.tritrainingcenter.org/course/M1/a_brief_history_1_a_brief_history.html

Sommers, D. G. and Napier, T. L. 1993. Comparison of Amish and non-Amish farmers: a diffusion/farm structure perspective. Rural Sociology 58: 130-145.

Trewavas, A. 2004. Fertilizer: no-till farming could reduce run-off. Nature 427, 99 (8 January 2004).

USDA/Economic Research Service. "Comparing options for addressing nonpoint-pource pollution," in Economics of Water Quality Protection. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aer782/aer782c.pdf

USDA Fact Sheet, Certification: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3004346&acct=nopgeninfo

USDA Fact Sheet, Organic Labeling and Marketing: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3004446&acct=nopgeninfo

USDA, The National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5068682&acct=nopgeninfo